C180 Chapter 1 Foundations

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Western Governors University

C180 Introduction to Psychology

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Chapter 1: Foundations

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

Comprehend the broad scope of psychology
Recognize various perspectives within psychology
Understand the scientific research methods utilized in psychology

Different Approaches in Psychology

Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Each psychological approach or perspective offers a unique explanation for why and how we think, feel, and act.

Behavioral Approach

This perspective centers on observable behaviors, examining how these behaviors are shaped by external stimuli from the environment and internal stimuli within ourselves.

Biological Approach

The biological viewpoint attributes our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to genetics and physiological processes. It is distinct in analyzing psychological phenomena from a physical and biological standpoint.

Evolutionary Approach

Evolutionary psychology explores how natural selection and evolutionary forces have influenced the development of the human mind and behavioral patterns.

Developmental Approach

Also referred to as Human Development, this branch studies the progressive psychological changes humans experience throughout their lifespan.

Psychodynamic Approach

Founded by Sigmund Freud, this approach emphasizes the unconscious mind’s significant role in shaping behavior, highlighting the influence of unconscious drives and conflicts.

Cultural Approach

This perspective examines how social and cultural contexts—such as ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and race—impact psychological processes and behaviors.

Cognitive Approach

Focuses on mental processes like perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking, and investigates how these processes influence our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.

Breadth of Content in Psychology

Psychology addresses fundamental questions such as:

Why do we behave the way we do?
Why do we experience particular emotions?
What determines how we think?
What distinguishes humans from other species?
How do individual differences arise?
How do social contexts affect behavior?

The scope of psychology covers a diverse array of topics, including:

Topic	Description
Brain Functioning	Studies brain activity and its correlation with behavior, emphasizing coordination between brain regions rather than isolated “centers” for memory or reading.
Memory	Investigates memory as a functional system, including eyewitness memory and common errors such as commission and omission.
Innate Capacities	Explores achievements based on innate abilities, observed even in infants (e.g., basic arithmetic).
Communication and Displays	Examines verbal and non-verbal communication, including body language and physical displays like the peacock’s feathers.
Social Behavior in Humans	Analyzes human social behavior, noting its complexity, flexibility, and strategic nature, especially within groups or crowds.

The variability of social behavior, particularly how it changes in group settings, presents an important question for psychological research.

Diversity of Perspectives

Psychology’s richness lies in the variety of perspectives applied to a single phenomenon. For example, the behavior of eating can be studied from:

Perspective	Focus Area
Biological	Genetic and physiological basis of eating behavior
Cultural	Influence of culture on eating habits and preferences
Social	Social context and eating behaviors
Psychological Disorders	Examination of eating disorders
Cognitive	Control mechanisms and decision-making about eating
Developmental	Formation of food preferences over time

What Unites Psychology?

Two core themes unify the discipline:

Theme 1: Types of Questions
Psychologists seek to understand why we behave, think, and feel the way we do.
Theme 2: Methods of Inquiry
Psychologists employ the scientific method to answer these questions, involving systematic observation, hypothesis testing, and data analysis.

The Scientific Research Method in Psychology

Psychology aims to describe, explain, predict, and sometimes influence mental processes and behavior. This is achieved through the scientific method, a rigorous process involving question formulation, data collection, and drawing conclusions.

Research Methods in Psychology

Psychological research designs generally fall into two categories: experimental and non-experimental methods.

Method Type	Examples	Data Type	Notes
Experimental	Laboratory experiments, field experiments, quasi-experiments	Quantitative	Allows control over variables and cause-effect inference
Non-experimental	Observation, surveys, interviews, case studies	Descriptive/Qualitative or sometimes quantitative	More descriptive, often less control over variables

Observation

Naturalistic observation involves watching behaviors in their usual environments without interference, often quantifying behaviors such as frequency of smiles or aggressive acts.

Correlational Studies

These studies explore relationships between two variables, assessing direction and strength but cannot establish causality. Results can be positive, negative, or show no correlation, typically expressed with a correlation coefficient ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.

Correlation Type	Description	Coefficient Range
Positive Correlation	Both variables increase or decrease together	Close to +1.00
Negative Correlation	One variable increases as the other decreases	Close to -1.00
No Correlation	No relationship between variables	Around 0

Experimental Studies

Experiments allow researchers to manipulate one variable (independent variable) and observe the effect on another (dependent variable), facilitating conclusions about cause and effect.

Term	Definition
Independent Variable (IV)	The factor manipulated by the researcher
Dependent Variable (DV)	The outcome influenced by changes in the IV
Control Group	Participants not exposed to the treatment
Experimental Group	Participants exposed to the treatment

Example of an Experimental Hypothesis

A hypothesis might be: Using praise as motivation increases student success in mathematics. Two groups of students, equal in age, intelligence, and prior math ability, are taught the same material by the same instructor. Group A receives praise; Group B does not. After a test, Group A performs better, supporting the hypothesis.

Variable Type	Example in Study
Dependent Variable	Student success in math
Independent Variable	Use of praise as motivation
Experimental Group	Group A (praised)
Control Group	Group B (no praise)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Research Methods

Method	Advantages	Disadvantages
Observation	High realism, minimal researcher interference, captures many variables	Lack of variable control, cannot infer causality, less precise measurement
Correlational	Identifies relationships, allows predictions, usable in diverse settings	Cannot establish cause-effect relationships
Experimental	Enables control of variables, establishes causality	Artificial settings, limited generalizability, potential experimenter bias

References

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2019). Psychology (12th ed.). Worth Publishers.