C180 Foundations of Psychology Study Guide: Key Concepts & Theories

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Western Governors University

C180 Introduction to Psychology

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Evolution of Psychology

1. Define psychology using the words include science, mind, and behavior.

Psychology is defined as the scientific study of the mind and behavior. The science of psychology involves the systematic observation and collection of data to draw objective conclusions rather than relying on opinions, intuitions, or guesses. The mind refers to the collection of mental processes and functions produced by the brain—such as perception, memory, emotion, and reasoning—that shape human experience. The behavior component of psychology involves observable physical actions, both voluntary and involuntary, such as speech, facial expressions, and bodily movements. These behaviors are typically influenced by preceding mental events, including perceptions or cognitive evaluations of a situation (Myers & DeWall, 2022).

2. What are the three levels of analysis along with their purpose?

Psychological phenomena can be studied across three levels of analysis—the brain, person, and group levels. Each level serves a unique purpose in understanding behavior and mental processes.

Level of Analysis	Focus	Purpose
Brain	Examines biological structures and processes, including neurons, neurotransmitters, and genetic influences.	Explains how biological mechanisms contribute to behavior and mental states.
Person	Focuses on individual mental processes such as perception, emotion, learning, and motivation.	Explores how personal cognition and experiences shape thought and behavior.
Group	Examines how individuals interact within social and cultural contexts.	Investigates how relationships, culture, and environment influence behavior.

Major Schools of Thought in Psychology

Psychology has evolved through various schools of thought that emphasize different aspects of human experience.

School of Thought	Founder/Key Figure	Focus and Contribution
Structuralism	Wilhelm Wundt (1879)	Focused on identifying the building blocks of consciousness, such as sensations and feelings, using introspection.
Functionalism	William James	Explored how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment and how behavior functions for survival.
Gestalt Psychology	Max Wertheimer	Proposed that the mind perceives objects as whole patterns rather than separate parts—“the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
Behaviorism	Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner	Emphasized observable behavior and stimulus-response relationships over internal mental processes.
Psychodynamic Theory	Sigmund Freud	Suggested that unconscious motives and conflicts influence behavior, highlighting structures like the id, ego, and superego.
Humanism	Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers	Stressed individual potential, personal growth, and self-actualization, emphasizing free will and human dignity.

Each of these schools contributed foundational perspectives to modern psychology, shaping how behavior, cognition, and emotion are scientifically studied.

3. What are some of the major types of psychologists that we have today?

Modern psychology encompasses a range of specialties, each focusing on unique aspects of human experience.

Type of Psychologist	Primary Role
Clinical and Counseling Psychologists	Diagnose and treat mental health disorders, provide therapy, and help individuals cope with emotional difficulties.
Academic Psychologists	Conduct research and teach at universities, advancing theoretical knowledge across psychological fields.
Applied Psychologists	Use psychological principles to solve real-world problems in business, health, education, and sports settings.

Psychological Research

1. Describe the unique characteristics of the following four approaches to research in psychology.

Psychological research relies on systematic methods to understand human thought and behavior. The four major research approaches—descriptive, correlational, experimental, and case study—serve distinct purposes.

Research Type	Description	Key Features
Descriptive Research	Involves observing and describing behavior without manipulating variables.	Includes methods such as naturalistic observation, surveys, and case studies to gather detailed information.
Correlational Research	Examines statistical relationships between variables to determine associations.	Correlation coefficients range from -1.0 to +1.0, indicating the strength and direction of relationships.
Experimental Research	Involves manipulating an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable.	Uses control and experimental groups to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Case Study	Provides an in-depth analysis of a single individual or small group.	Allows detailed exploration of rare phenomena or unique psychological conditions.

2. In considering the ethical considerations in research, explain each of the following.

Ethical guidelines in psychological research protect participants’ rights and well-being. Without these safeguards, research could cause harm, violate privacy, or yield unreliable results.

Ethical Principle	Explanation	Importance
Confidentiality	Ensures participants’ personal data and responses remain private.	Protects individual privacy and encourages honest participation.
Potential Risks	Identifies physical, psychological, or emotional harm that might result from participation.	Minimizing risks safeguards participants and upholds research integrity.
Withdrawal Procedures	Allows participants to leave the study at any time without penalty.	Ensures voluntary participation and maintains ethical transparency.

3. Explain the differences between the following terms.

Concepts	Definition	Example or Distinction
Independent vs. Dependent Variables	The independent variable is manipulated, while the dependent variable is measured.	A researcher changes sleep hours (independent) to measure alertness (dependent).
Positive vs. Negative Correlations	Positive correlations indicate both variables move in the same direction; negative correlations move oppositely.	Height and weight (positive); exercise and body fat (negative).
Validity vs. Reliability	Validity ensures a measure assesses what it claims; reliability ensures consistent results.	A valid depression test measures depression, not anxiety.
Random Assignment vs. Random Sample	Random assignment allocates participants to groups; random sampling selects participants from a population.	Both enhance fairness and representativeness.
Hypothesis vs. Theory	A hypothesis is a testable prediction; a theory is a well-established explanation based on evidence.	“Sleep improves memory” (hypothesis) vs. “Cognitive theory of memory” (theory).

4. What does IRB stand for and what do they do?

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a committee that reviews psychological studies to ensure they adhere to ethical and safety standards. The IRB evaluates potential risks and benefits across all levels of analysis—biological, personal, and social—to protect participants from harm and uphold scientific integrity (American Psychological Association, 2020).

5. What are some important aspects of Informed Consent?

Informed consent is a foundational ethical principle requiring participants to receive full disclosure about a study before agreeing to participate. They must be informed about:

The study’s purpose and procedures
Any potential risks or benefits
Their right to withdraw at any time without consequence

This transparency ensures autonomy and voluntary participation, aligning with the APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2020).

References

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA.

Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2022). Psychology in everyday life (6th ed.). Worth Publishers.