C180 Milestone 1 Study Notes

Student Name

Western Governors University

C180 Introduction to Psychology

Prof. Name:

Date

UNIT 1 — MILESTONE 1

Concept → Classic Psychological Studies

Communicating Observed Behavior

In psychology, the act of expressing or describing what one observes in behavior is known as description. Observation refers to what we can directly see or measure, while description involves communicating or articulating these observations in a systematic and scientific manner. Effective communication of behavior is foundational in psychological research, as it allows for shared understanding, replication, and further study among researchers (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020).

Question	Answer	Explanation
In psychology, communicating what you see happening with behavior is known as __________.	Description	Observation involves seeing, while description involves communicating what is seen.

Concept → Goals and Definitions

Focus of Behaviorists

Behaviorism is a school of thought within psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior rather than internal mental processes. Behaviorists focus on how the environment and learning experiences shape and control behavior. They believe that through conditioning—both classical and operant—behavior can be predicted, modified, and controlled (Skinner, 1953).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Behaviorists study __________.	The effects of learning and the environment on behavior	Behaviorists emphasize observable responses to environmental stimuli rather than mental states.

Concept → History of Psychological Theories: Behaviorism and Gestalt

Stimulus and Response

Behaviorism is rooted in the principle that stimulus (an environmental event) leads to a response (a behavioral reaction). Learning occurs through associations between stimuli and responses, forming habits and patterns over time (Watson, 1913).

Key Terms	Definition
Stimulus	Any event or situation that evokes a response.
Response	The behavior that follows an environmental event.

Concept → Research Design in Psychology

Independent Variables

In experimental research, independent variables are the elements that researchers intentionally manipulate to observe their effect on other variables, typically the dependent variable. The ability to control and alter these factors allows researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships (Field, 2018).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Variables in an experiment that are changed and controlled by the experimenter are called __________.	Independent variables	These are the factors manipulated by researchers to observe their effects on behavior.

Concept → Factors That Impact Research Results

Controlling Bias

A double-blind study is a research method used to eliminate bias by ensuring that neither the participants nor the experimenters know which group (control or experimental) a participant belongs to. This prevents conscious or unconscious influence on results, improving the reliability of findings (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008).

Question	Answer	Explanation
__________ is a method of controlling bias in which both the experimenter and the subjects do not know who is experiencing the experimental conditions.	A double-blind study	This approach helps prevent experimenter or participant bias from affecting outcomes.

Concept → Three Levels of Analysis

Biological Perspective

The biological perspective emphasizes how genetics, brain function, and natural selection influence human behavior. It considers the physical and evolutionary bases of actions, focusing on how inherited traits and neurobiological processes contribute to psychological phenomena (Pinel, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which of the following emphasizes the role of genetics and natural selection in the development of human behavior?	Biological perspective	This perspective examines how biology and evolution shape behavior.

Concept → History of Psychological Theories: Structuralism, Functionalism, and Freud

Founder of Psychodynamic Theory

The psychodynamic theory, founded by Sigmund Freud, posits that behavior is influenced by unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts. Freud’s observations of patients led him to conclude that psychological issues often stemmed from unresolved memories rather than physical causes (Freud, 1923).

Question	Answer	Explanation
The founder of psychodynamic theory is __________.	Sigmund Freud	Freud’s theory emphasizes the unconscious mind’s impact on conscious actions.

Concept → History of Psychological Theories: Cognitive Psychology and Humanism

Humanism and the Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are central figures in humanistic psychology, which emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization. Maslow proposed the hierarchy of needs, suggesting that individuals progress from basic physiological needs to higher levels of psychological development and self-fulfillment (Maslow, 1943).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which scientist made a significant contribution to humanism through the concept of a hierarchy of needs?	Abraham Maslow	Maslow’s model explains motivation through a pyramid of human needs.

Concept → The Scientific Method and Research Methods

Biased Samples

A biased sample occurs when participants in a study do not accurately represent the population being studied. Such samples can lead to distorted results and limit the generalizability of findings (Gravetter & Forzano, 2020). Ensuring random selection helps reduce sampling bias.

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which of the following describes a biased sample?	A sample that is not representative of a population	Biased samples can produce invalid or misleading conclusions.

Concept → Ethics in Psychological Research

APA Code of Conduct

The American Psychological Association (APA) upholds ethical standards to ensure the welfare and rights of research participants. The APA Professional Code of Conduct emphasizes informed consent, confidentiality, and the avoidance of harm, ensuring that psychological research maintains integrity and respect for human dignity (APA, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which of the following is a focus of the APA Professional Code of Conduct for Psychologists?	The protection of the welfare of clients	Ethics in research prioritize participant safety, autonomy, and well-being.

References

American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. APA. https://www.apa.org/ethics/code

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA.

Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. W.W. Norton & Company.

Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. B. (2020). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.